Centricity Without Hierarchy, Part XLIX
Peter Thoegersen
2026
Abstract
Across geographically and historically unrelated musical cultures — among them the San of the Kalahari, the BaAka Pygmies of Central Africa, Aboriginal Australians, the Pueblo and Navajo peoples of the American Southwest, Inuit communities of the circumpolar north, the Slavic ritual song traditions of Eastern Europe, and the Gregorian and Byzantine chant traditions at the foundation of Western liturgical music — a strikingly consistent pitch logic recurs: music organized around a narrow ambitus and a nuclear pitch center, with no triadic hierarchy and no functional voice-leading. This paper argues that such organization represents not a deficiency or a pre-developmental stage but a primary and self-sufficient musical logic: centricity without hierarchy. It further argues that this logic converges, through entirely independent structural derivation, with the pitch world of polytempic polymicrotonality as developed by the present author — a system in which four simultaneous and independent tuning systems, each bonded to an independent tempo, generate pitch materials that are internally centric but collectively non-hierarchical. The global evidence, which includes the Western tradition's own pre-tonal past, suggests that the Common Practice triadic-functional system is not the natural telos of musical pitch organization but a historically and geographically specific elaboration of it, and that nucleus-based centricity is the more universal and primary category.
I. The Problem of Centricity in Western Music Theory
Western music theory has historically struggled to distinguish between two phenomena it tends to conflate: centricity and hierarchy. In the Common Practice tonal system, these are so thoroughly fused as to appear identical. The tonic functions simultaneously as the gravitational center of the pitch field and as the apex of a functional hierarchy in which subdominant and dominant stand in defined, obligatory relationships to it. The leading tone must resolve. The dominant seventh must fall. The motion from instability to stability — from V to I — is not merely conventional but theoretically necessary within the system's own logic.
This fusion has led theorists to treat centricity as though it necessarily implies hierarchy, and hierarchy as though it necessarily implies the triadic functional system. When confronted with music that is clearly organized around a pitch center but lacks triadic harmonic motion, the theoretical literature has tended to pathologize or exoticize the observation: the music is described as 'modal,' 'archaic,' 'primitive,' or as occupying some earlier stage of a developmental sequence that would, if pursued further, arrive at functional tonality.
The ethnomusicological record does not support this narrative. What it supports instead is a distinction the Western tradition has been slow to make formally: that centricity is the more universal and primary phenomenon, and that the triadic-functional elaboration of it is one historically specific path among several. Nucleus-based pitch organization — music that coheres around a central tone or small intervallic cell without generating or requiring harmonic hierarchy — is not a proto-tonal system awaiting completion. It is a complete system, self-sufficient and internally coherent, that happens not to require what Western theory assumed was inevitable.
Crucially, this is not merely a claim about non-Western musical cultures. As Section V will demonstrate, the Western tradition's own foundational musical practice — Gregorian chant and the modal system that governed European liturgical music for nearly a millennium — is itself organized on principles of centricity without hierarchy. The displacement of that system by functional tonality was a historical event, not a theoretical necessity. European music theory subsequently misread its own past, treating the Common Practice era as the culmination of everything that preceded it rather than as one elaboration of a more fundamental pitch logic that had other possible destinations.
II. African Traditions
The San (Bushmen) of the Kalahari
The vocal music of the San peoples of southern Africa — among the oldest continuously maintained musical traditions in the world — characteristically operates within an ambitus of a minor third or less. The pitch field is not a scale in any Western sense but a small nucleus of two or three tones around which melodic motion oscillates. Microtonal inflection is constant and structurally integral rather than ornamental: the exact placement of pitches within the nucleus shifts between phrases and between singers in hocket texture, producing a sonic world in which the center is felt gravitationally without being specifiable as a fixed frequency.
The yodel-like register breaks that occur in San singing do not imply harmonic stratification. They represent timbral contrast — a different kind of pitch function than the one Western theory recognizes — and do not generate the expectation of resolution or return that dominant-to-tonic motion would. The center simply is; it does not need to be earned.
BaAka and Mbuti Pygmies
The polyphonic forest music of the BaAka (Central African Republic and Congo) and the Mbuti (Ituri Forest, Democratic Republic of Congo) presents perhaps the most sophisticated example of nucleus-based pitch organization in the ethnomusicological record. Dense polyphony is constructed from interlocking small melodic cells, each operating within a range of a second or third. The cells do not harmonize in the Western sense — they do not form chords, and the vertical intervals produced by their combination are not governed by a consonance-dissonance hierarchy. Instead, they produce a collective sonic texture in which centricity emerges from the convergence and divergence of independent narrow-range voices.
Ethnomusicologist Simha Arom's structural analyses of BaAka polyphony demonstrate that the music's coherence arises from rhythmic and timbral interlocking rather than harmonic function. The pitch organization is multiplicatively centric: each voice has its own nuclear center, and the relationship between these centers is not hierarchical but coordinative. This distinction is crucial, and will recur in the discussion of polytempic polymicrotonality below.
Ethiopian Liturgical Chant
The Ge'ez chant tradition of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church — one of the oldest surviving Christian liturgical music systems — employs three distinct modes (Ge'ez, Ezil, and Araray) whose pitch materials and melodic movement are foreign to Western triadic hearing. Melodic motion is predominantly stepwise within a narrow ambitus; phrases turn back on themselves rather than generating directional momentum toward a goal pitch. The modal distinctions are carried by specific melodic gestures and characteristic interval patterns rather than by scale degrees functioning as harmonic roots.
Slavic Ritual Song: The Birch Tree Tradition
Among the most ethnomusicologically significant survivals in the European folk record is the stratum of Slavic calendar and ritual songs — the troitskie pesni and semitskie pesni of Russia, the vesnyanky of Ukraine, and their cognates throughout the Slavic-speaking world — associated with the pre-Christian spring ritual cycle and preserved in function-specific contexts (spring, harvest, wedding, funeral) where the archaic pitch world was protected from absorption into the major-minor tonal system.
Russian ethnomusicologists Izaly Zemtsovsky and Anna Rudneva have documented that the troitskie pesni — birch tree songs, sung while girls braided branches and circled trees in May — represent the most archaic surviving layer of Russian folk melody. Their pitch organization is extreme in its narrowness: the melody often consists of an oscillation between two pitches a major second apart, the entire musical content carried by rhythm, text, and timbre rather than melodic contour. These are not truncated or impoverished tunes. They are complete musical statements in a system for which narrow ambitus is structural rather than incidental.
The Russian and Belarusian funeral and wedding lamentations (prichitaniya) extend this logic to its limit: a single pitch with ornamented approach tones, or two pitches a step apart, carrying the entire weight of extended musical utterance. The pitches are not tonic and leading tone in suspension; they are a nucleus and its inflection, stable in themselves.
Bulgarian Close-Interval Polyphony
The Bulgarian village singing traditions — particularly the Rhodope style of the south and the Shope and Thracian styles of western and central Bulgaria — represent the most radical case of nucleus-based pitch organization in the European tradition. Two voices will sustain a major second as a stable, unresolved, deliberately chosen sonority. This is not a suspension awaiting resolution; it is a consonance within the system's own terms. The pitch world is non-tempered, with neutral intervals throughout, and the total ambitus is frequently under a fourth.
The Ganga tradition of Herzegovina and Bosnia represents an adjacent extreme: two or three voices in nearly unison singing, sitting within a minor second of each other and sustaining the resultant beating and friction as the primary sonic material. The entire music lives in the interval between near-unisons — in the acoustic beating, the aggregate timbre, the physical sensation of voices almost but not quite merging. What Bulgarian and South Slavic close-interval polyphony demonstrates is that the second — the interval Western theory places lowest in the consonance hierarchy — can function as a primary stable sonority in a coherent, sophisticated, fully elaborated musical system. This inversion of the Western hierarchy is not a deficiency but an alternative axiom.
III. Aboriginal Australian Traditions
Australian Aboriginal music presents perhaps the most consistent global example of narrow-ambitus pitch organization. Across the continent's enormously diverse linguistic and cultural landscape, the narrow range — frequently under a fourth, often under a third — is a near-universal feature of song. Ethnomusicologist Curt Sachs identified a characteristic 'tumbling strain' pattern in Aboriginal melody: phrases begin at a relatively high point and descend gradually toward a resting tone, often over a range of a fourth or fifth, but individual phrases within this overall contour may operate within only a step or two.
The pitch materials themselves resist Western scalar categorization. Intervals are frequently neutral — neither major nor minor thirds, but somewhere between — and the exact placement of pitches shifts slightly between repetitions in ways that are not errors or inconsistencies but structural features. The pitch world is fluid around a fixed gravitational center.
The manikay tradition of Arnhem Land exemplifies these features with particular clarity. Songs are clan-specific and country-specific: each song belongs to a particular group and evokes a particular place, species, or ancestral event. The pitch organization is inseparable from this ontological function — the song is not a representation of the thing but a dimension of it. The narrow ambitus and nuclear centricity are thus not stylistic preferences but structural necessities of a sonic world in which music and being are not differentiated.
The drone of the didgeridoo, where present, creates a non-triadic sonic environment in which the voice operates independently above the sustained fundamental. There is no harmonic relationship between drone and melody in the Western sense — no implied dominant, no tonal function — only two pitch fields coexisting in the same acoustic space, each with its own internal logic.
IV. Native American Traditions
Great Plains and Pueblo Traditions
The war songs, honor songs, and sun dance songs of Great Plains cultures — Lakota, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and others — are characterized by a large overall ambitus and a descending melodic contour, features that distinguish them from the narrow-range traditions discussed above. However, individual phrases within these songs often operate within an extremely narrow band, and the pitch materials — pentatonic in a non-functional sense, with neutral thirds and no leading-tone mechanism — resist triadic analysis. The pentatonic scale here is not a subset of a tonal system but an independent pitch world with its own internal logic.
Pueblo ceremonial music (Hopi, Zuni, Tewa) presents a more consistently narrow ambitus, with a drone-like quality that approaches the Aboriginal Australian model. The pitch materials are modal in a non-Western sense: not derived from a scale with hierarchical degrees, but organized around a nuclear center with specific characteristic interval patterns that give each song type its identity.
Navajo and Apache Traditions
Navajo chantway songs and Apache Gan dance songs frequently operate on pitch sets of two to four notes, sometimes with a semitone oscillation that carries no triadic implication. The interval of a minor second, which in Western tonal music functions as maximum tension requiring resolution, here functions as the primary melodic material — oscillated between steadily, without the harmonic urgency that would make resolution necessary. The center is the minor second itself, not either of its constituent tones in isolation.
Inuit Throat Singing
The katajjaq throat singing tradition of Inuit communities (Inupiaq, Yupik, and others) represents the extreme case in the Native American context. Katajjaq is a game-like vocal practice between two performers who interlock narrow-range phrases in close proximity, the primary material being not pitch in the Western sense but breath, timbre, and rhythm. Pitches used are often only a step or two apart; the interest lies in the interlocking, the physical breath management, and the competitive-cooperative relationship between the two performers. It is music organized almost entirely below the threshold at which Western pitch hierarchy becomes possible.
California Traditions
The musical traditions of California Indigenous peoples — Pomo, Yurok, Wintu, and many others — are characterized by what ethnomusicologists describe as tonal vagueness: pitches that shift slightly between repetitions, intervals that are neutral, and an ambitus that rarely exceeds a fifth. This vagueness is not imprecision but a different precision — a pitch world organized around a gravitational center whose exact frequency is less important than its position within the narrow cell.
V. Gregorian Chant and the Western Modal Tradition
Any account of centricity without hierarchy that confines itself to non-Western traditions risks a fundamental misreading: that such pitch organization is exotic, peripheral, or belonging only to cultures outside the European art music lineage. The history of Gregorian chant and the broader Western modal tradition corrects this decisively. For nearly a millennium, the dominant musical practice of Western Europe was organized around principles of centricity without triadic hierarchy — and it was fully theorized, systematically transmitted, and culturally central. The Common Practice era did not emerge from a tradition that had always been tonal; it displaced a tradition that had always been modal.
Gregorian chant, as codified from roughly the eighth century onward and theorized in the modal system elaborated by Boethius, Guido of Arezzo, and their successors, organizes melody around eight modes distinguished not by scale content alone but by characteristic melodic behavior: the finalis (the resting tone, the nuclear center), the tenor or repercussa (the reciting tone, the pitch around which melodic motion habitually circles), and the ambitus (the range of the melody, typically an octave or less, frequently much less in practice). The relationship between finalis and tenor is not a harmonic relationship in the Common Practice sense — there is no implied dominant, no voice-leading obligation, no structural dissonance requiring resolution. It is a relationship between two gravitational points within a pitch field organized modally rather than harmonically.
The ambitus of individual chant phrases is characteristically narrow. While a complete chant melody may traverse its modal octave over the course of a full performance, individual phrases typically move within a third or fourth, turning back on themselves, circling the tenor, approaching and leaving the finalis by step. This is precisely the narrow-cell, nuclear-orbit motion described in the African and Aboriginal traditions above — present here not in a pre-literate oral tradition but in the most thoroughly notated and theorized musical system of medieval Europe.
The modal degrees of Gregorian chant do not function harmonically. The seventh degree of the Dorian mode is not a leading tone in the tonal sense — it carries no obligation to ascend by half step to the octave. The fourth degree is not a subdominant implying a move to the dominant. Each degree has its characteristic melodic weight, its idiomatic approach and departure gestures, its position within the gravitational field of the finalis and tenor — but these are melodic functions, not harmonic ones. The chant is effectively monophonic: a single line in which all structural information is carried by melodic contour, rhythm, and the relationship of individual tones to the nuclear center, with no harmonic dimension whatsoever.
This distinction — between melodic function and harmonic function — is crucial and frequently collapsed in retrospective analysis. When theorists of the Renaissance and early Baroque began applying triadic thinking to modal melodies, they were not revealing the implicit harmonic logic of the modes; they were imposing a new logic onto pitch materials organized by a different one. The modal system did not evolve toward functional tonality because it contained functional tonality in embryo. It was displaced by functional tonality — a historically contingent event, not a theoretical necessity.
The chant traditions of Eastern Christendom extend and deepen the picture. Byzantine chant employs a system of eight echoi with characteristic melodic formulas, ornamental inflections, and microtonal modifications — certain pitches are situated between the semitones of equal temperament, placing Byzantine intonation in structural proximity to the neutral-interval pitch worlds of the San, Aboriginal, and Bulgarian traditions discussed above. The Ethiopian Ge'ez chant tradition, noted in Section II, represents a third branch of Christian liturgical music organized on modal-centric principles equally distant from triadic harmony. Taken together, the three branches of Christian chant — Roman, Byzantine, Ge'ez — collectively demonstrate that narrow-ambitus, nucleus-centric, non-triadic pitch organization is not a non-Western phenomenon accidentally imported into European consciousness. It is indigenous to European and Near Eastern musical culture, present at the foundation of the Western tradition itself.
For the present composer, Gregorian chant is not merely theoretical context. Symphony No. 4 incorporates Gregorian chant material directly, situating the modal-centric tradition within a polytempic polymicrotonal framework. This compositional decision was not an act of nostalgic quotation or neo-modal pastiche; it was a recognition that the chant's pitch logic — its nuclear centricity, its non-hierarchical modal degrees, its narrow phrase ambitus — operates in structural proximity to the logic of the polytempic system itself. The chant materials, embedded within the polytempic texture, do not clash with the surrounding microtonal layers as foreign bodies; they coexist with them as another instance of centricity without hierarchy. Symphony No. 4 thus enacts compositionally what this paper argues theoretically: that Gregorian chant and polytempic polymicrotonality share a common structural ancestor in nucleus-based pitch organization, separated by nine centuries of Western tonal history that turned out to be a detour rather than a destination.
VI. Centricity Without Hierarchy: A Theoretical Proposition
The traditions surveyed above share a structural principle that can now be stated explicitly. In each case — San, BaAka, Bulgarian, Slavic ritual, Aboriginal Australian, Pueblo, Navajo, Inuit, Gregorian — musical coherence is organized around a nuclear pitch center without generating or requiring a hierarchy of scale degrees, voice-leading obligations, or harmonic function. The center simply is. It does not need to be prepared, elaborated, or resolved to. Departures from it are not tensions; returns to it are not resolutions. It exerts gravitational force without directional implication.
This is centricity without hierarchy. It is not a proto-tonal system awaiting the emergence of the dominant-tonic relationship. It is a self-sufficient and internally coherent musical logic that happens to organize pitch differently than the Common Practice system — not less completely, but differently. The narrow ambitus is not a limitation but a structural choice: music happens inside the interval, in the precise placement and inflection of pitches within a small field, rather than across a wide range of harmonically specified scale degrees.
Western music theory has available a term — centric — that should be sufficient to describe this phenomenon, but the term has been consistently applied within contexts where hierarchy is assumed. Heinrich Schenker's analytical system presupposes the Ursatz as the deep structure of all tonal music; music without dominant-tonic motion is simply outside its analytical scope. Even post-tonal theories of pitch centricity (Straus, Lerdahl) tend to model centricity as a weakened version of tonal hierarchy rather than as a structurally independent phenomenon. The evidence surveyed here demands a stronger theoretical distinction: centricity and hierarchy are separable, and the former is the more universal category.
It is worth stating what this implies about the Common Practice tradition. If nucleus-based centricity is found across San music, Aboriginal Australian song, Navajo chantway, Inuit katajjaq, Bulgarian Rhodope polyphony, Russian birch tree songs, and Gregorian chant — traditions that share no common historical origin and no stylistic surface — then the triadic-functional system is not the natural culmination of musical pitch organization. It is one elaboration of centricity among several possible ones: historically contingent, geographically specific, and theoretically parochial in its tendency to treat itself as universal.
VII. Convergence with Polytempic Polymicrotonality
The system of polytempic polymicrotonality, as developed in this composer's work beginning with the polyrhythmic drumming experiments of 1985 and arriving at its first complete formal realization in Alien Music (2002) and its first fully notated realization in Hypercube (2012), organizes pitch in ways that converge structurally with the nucleus-based centricity described above — without having derived from it.
The system's fundamental principle is the structural bonding of four independent tuning systems to four independent tempi, with no master fundamental and no hierarchical center shared among the layers. Each layer generates its own pitch materials — its own microtonally specified intervals, its own internal logic — and these materials coexist simultaneously with the materials of the other three layers without resolving toward a common tonal goal. The system is multicentric without being hierarchical: each layer has its own nuclear center, and the relationship between these centers is coordinative rather than functional.
Within each individual layer, the pitch materials generated by the system's microtonally specified intervals tend toward the kind of narrow-cell, nucleus-based organization described in the ethnomusicological traditions above. The tuning systems employed are not subsets of equal temperament, nor derived from Western scale theory; they are independently specified frequency relationships that produce neutral thirds, microtonal seconds, quarter-tones and smaller subdivisions — intervals sharing the neutral-interval character of San, Aboriginal, Navajo, and Bulgarian pitch materials. This is not borrowing; it is structural convergence arrived at independently.
The polytempic dimension of the system deepens the convergence in a way that may be the most fundamental parallel of all. The independence of four simultaneous tempi mirrors, at the level of temporal organization, the independence of voices in BaAka polyphonic hocket, the independence of singer and didgeridoo in Aboriginal performance, and the independence of the two performers in Inuit katajjaq. In each case, multiple independent streams of organized sound coexist without subordinating to a master pulse or a shared hierarchical framework. The streams are coordinated — they inhabit the same acoustic space and the same temporal span — but they are not unified under a common authority.
This parallel suggests that the polytempic bonding principle — the structural linking of pitch system to tempo, such that each layer's internal logic is tempo-specific — is not merely a technical procedure but an articulation of a broader musical philosophy: the philosophy of independence within coexistence, of multiple centric systems sharing a space without requiring hierarchical resolution. This is, it can now be argued with global evidence, the philosophy implicit in the world's oldest and most widely distributed musical traditions.
VIII. On Independent Derivation, Structural Rhyme, and the Question of Appropriation
It is essential to the argument of this paper — and to the ethical clarity of its claims — that the convergence described above is a structural convergence, not a stylistic influence, and emphatically not a borrowing. No pitch materials, scales, instruments, timbres, tuning systems, or aesthetic surfaces from any of the traditions discussed in this paper have been borrowed, adapted, quoted, or employed in the composer's work. The polytempic polymicrotonal system was developed entirely from internal compositional logic: the extension of four-limb drumming independence to the pitch domain, the application of the 3:4:5:7 polyrhythmic ratio structure to independent tuning systems, the bonding of those systems to independent tempi. The African, Aboriginal, Native American, Slavic, and chant traditions arrived at structurally related principles through entirely different paths: ritual function, oral transmission, community practice, ecological embeddedness, liturgical necessity.
Cultural appropriation in music involves taking specific materials from another culture — scales, melodies, rhythms, instruments, aesthetic surface — and incorporating them into one's own work, usually without acknowledgment and often with commercial benefit. None of that has occurred here. The polytempic polymicrotonal works do not sound like San music. They do not sound like Aboriginal Australian song. They employ neither Bulgarian modes nor Slavic modal patterns nor Gregorian formulas — except in Symphony No. 4, where Gregorian chant material is incorporated explicitly, with full acknowledgment, as a historically traceable pitch system with its own theoretical identity, not as anonymous folk material to be absorbed without credit.
What has occurred is something categorically different: independent derivation producing structural rhyme. Two mathematicians in different countries who independently prove the same theorem have not stolen from each other; the convergence is evidence that they found something real. The structural principle of centricity without hierarchy — nucleus-based pitch organization, narrow ambitus as structural choice, multiple independent centric streams without hierarchical resolution — appears to be a deep feature of musical possibility, not a cultural invention belonging to any single tradition. The fact that independent derivation repeatedly arrives at it is the strongest evidence that it reflects something inherent in the phenomenology of organized sound rather than something arbitrary.
The global evidence, from this perspective, runs entirely in the composer's favor. The San, BaAka, Aboriginal, Navajo, Inuit, Bulgarian, Slavic, and chant traditions do not make claims on the polytempic polymicrotonal system; they validate it. They demonstrate that its structural principles are not bizarre avant-garde constructions at the fringe of the Western tradition but reflections of something deep and recurring in human musical cognition — something the Common Practice tradition temporarily obscured by insisting that its local elaboration of centricity was centricity itself.
IX. Conclusion
The musical traditions surveyed in this paper — San, BaAka, Mbuti, Ethiopian, Bulgarian, Slavic ritual, Aboriginal Australian, Pueblo, Navajo, Apache, Inuit, California Indigenous, Gregorian, Byzantine, Ge'ez — constitute a body of global evidence for the following proposition: centricity without hierarchy is the more universal and primary category of pitch organization, and the triadic-functional system of the Common Practice tradition is a historically and geographically specific elaboration of it, not its natural culmination.
These traditions organize pitch around a nuclear center — a tone or small intervallic cell — without generating harmonic hierarchy, without requiring dominant-tonic motion, without treating the second as a dissonance requiring resolution. The music happens inside the interval, in the precise inflection and placement of pitches within a narrow field. The center exerts gravitational force without directional implication. This is centricity as a primary structural phenomenon, not as a weakened version of something else.
The system of polytempic polymicrotonality converges with this pitch logic through independent structural derivation. Each of the system's four simultaneous, independently tuned, independently temped layers is internally centric without being hierarchically related to the others. The system is multicentric, coordinative, and non-hierarchical at the macro level — precisely the structure that characterizes BaAka polyphony, Aboriginal drone-and-voice practice, Inuit katajjaq interlocking, and the independent melodic streams of medieval polyphony before the rise of functional harmony.
The composer who arrives, through internal logic, at the place where the world's oldest musical traditions have always lived is not inventing. He is remembering. And the breadth of the company in which he finds himself — from the Kalahari to Arnhem Land, from the Rhodope Mountains to the Gregorian scriptorium — is not coincidental. It is evidence.
Selected References
Apel, Willi. Gregorian Chant. Indiana University Press, 1958.
Arom, Simha. African Polyphony and Polyrhythmy: Musical Structure and Methodology. Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Blacking, John. How Musical Is Man? University of Washington Press, 1973.
Gajard, Dom Joseph. The Rhythm of Plainsong. Sacred Music Press, 1945.
Nettl, Bruno. The Study of Ethnomusicology: Thirty-Three Discussions. University of Illinois Press, 2015.
Rudneva, Anna. Russkie narodnye pesni. Moscow, 1957.
Sachs, Curt. The Wellsprings of Music. Martinus Nijhoff, 1962.
Thoegersen, Peter. Polytempic Polymicrotonal Composition: Theoretical Foundations. Jenny Stanford Publishing, 2022.
Thoegersen, Peter. Analytical Perspectives on Polytempic Polymicrotonal Structure. Jenny Stanford Publishing, 2024.
Treitler, Leo. With Voice and Pen: Coming to Know Medieval Song and How It Was Made. Oxford University Press, 2003.
Zemtsovsky, Izaly. Melodika kalendarnykh pesen. Muzyka, 1975.
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